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^ COI'MJIGHT DEPOSIT. 



TOOL PROCESSES 
IN WOODWORKING 



By 

A. P. LAUGHLIN, A.B., M.S. 

Inttructor in Industrial Arts, Pullman Free School of Manual Training 
Pullman, Illinois 




THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS 






Copyright, 1919, by 
A. P. Laugh LIN 



OCT 20 1919 



©CI.A58 5305 



\^ la/J/^/^ 



INTRODUCTION 

This little book is intended to set out only those things that 
a boy must know in order to do intelligent work with the usual 
woodworking tools. It is peculiar in what it omits as well as 
in the way it presents its subject-matter. 

It omits everything that the boy can find out easily for him- 
self or that does not contribute to his understanding and skill 
in the use of tools. Under the head of Reference Work these 
omissions are suggested as topics for study. Let the students 
look up these matters as they come to them. A few reference 
books will do for a large class when used in this way and the 
boys will come to see the value of books and learn how to use 
them in their work. 

As to form, the book is intended as a text for immature stu- 
dents. Hence, under each topic the operations or principles 
are set out by number. The teacher may tell the boy to be 
ready to give a certain number of points about the use, e. g., 
of the try-square, the marking gage or the sharpening of the 
plane iron. These points are clearly separated so that the boy 
can easily distinguish them. If he has not intellectually mas- 
tered them he can be left to himself, with the book and a dic- 
tionary, until he can, at least, tell the meaning of every word 
and state the points made by the book. If he does not then un- 
derstand, the teacher must somehow show and explain. "Man 
is the imitative animal par excellence" and we must not neglect 
this fact in our scheme of teaching. However, there are some 
things that the boy must know and this little text is intended 
to point out these things (and these only), hinting at more 
and endeavoring to stimulate an appetite for more. 

The book is especially helpful with boys who have been 
absent, and again with the boys who are inattentive. 

3 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 



Method of Procedure 7 

How to proceed when making a model. 
Pointers. Reference work. 

CHAPTER II 

Drawing 9 

Assembly and detail drawings. The bill of materials. Pointers. 
How to lay out the plate. Conventions. Dimensioning a plate. 
Standard letters and figures. Relationship of views. Conven- 
tional lines. The title. Reference and experimental work. 

CHAPTER III 

Measuring and Laying-ojt Tools 20 

The two most important principles. How to use the rule, the 
try-square, the marking gage, the T-bevel, the steel square, 
the dividers. Reference and experimental work. 

CHAPTER IV 

Hand Saws 25 

Use of the crosscut and rip saws. How to set and sharpen 
saws. Reference work. 

CHAPTER V 

Planes 28 

Adjustments. Shape of cutting edge. Use of smooth, jack, 
jointer and block planes. Surface, edge, and end planing 
Pointers. Reference and experimental work. 

CHAPTER VI 

Grinding and Sharpening Tools 34 

Grinding, whetting, reference, and experimental work. 

CHAPTER VII 

Squaring Stock to Dimensions 37 

The method and pointers. Reference work. 

5 



CHAPTER VIII 
Miscellaneous Tool Processes 39 

Making duplicate parts. Form work. Use of the scraper. Use 
of sand paper. Nailing. Fastening with screws. Use of hand 
screws. Glue. Reference work. 

CHAPTER IX 

The Common Joints 52 

The dado. The glue joint. The mortise-and-tenon. Reference 
work. 

CHAPTER X 

Wood Finishing 60 

The complete processes of staining, filling, and finishing. Fuming. 
Oil finishing. Reference work. Care of brushes. The stain 
bench. Reference work. 

CHAPTER XI 
Lumbering 67 

CHAPTER XII 

Suggestions to Teachers 69 

Method. Reference and experimental work. Shop Organization. 
How to keep up interest in drill work. Manual Training Equip- 
ment 



CHAPTER I 

Method of Procedure 

When starting any model or project in the shop proceed as 
follows : 

1. Make a drawing or set of drawings that will show the size 

and shape of every piece that enters into its construc- 
tion, and the method of assembling the parts. (See 
Chapter II.) 

2. Make out a bill of materials from the drawings. (See 

Chapter II.) 

3. Select and cut the stock for the entire project and mark 

each piece so that you will always know what it is to 
be used for. 

4. Square all pieces to dimensions, remembering to work dup- 

licate parts together. (See Chapters VII and VIII.) 

5. Lay out all joints, cuts, and holes on each of the pieces, 

remembering to measure always from the face side, the 
joint edge, and the end first squared. (See Chapter IX.) 

6. Show to the teacher and receive his O. K. 

7. Try out on a practice piece any joint or unit of construc- 

tion that is new to you or that you have failed to handle 
satisfactorily on preceding models. 

8. Show this practice work to your teacher and receive his 

permission to proceed with the construction of the model 
in hand. 

9. Cut the parts to their proper outline, cut the joints, bore 

the holes, and fit the parts together, following the meth- 
ods as outlined in Chapters IV, V, VII, VIII, and IX. 
10 Scrape and sand the surfaces. (See Chapter VIII.) 

7 



8 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

11. Stain, fill, and finish the parts. (See Chapter X.) 

At times some, or all of the parts should be assembled and glued 
before the staining and finishing is done. Judgment must be used 
at this point. Glue will not, of course, stick well to finished sur- 
faces. On the other hand, the parts can be finished and polished 
much better and more easily before they are assembled than after- 
ward. 

12. Assemble and fasten the parts. 

Pointers : 

1. Remember that dull tools never do good work. 

2. Use 'tools for the purpose intended. The try-square should be 
used to test right angles and to serve as a guide in laying out 
work. It is not intended to be used as a hammer or a screw 
driver. Again, use a mallet to force the chisel to its work. The 
hammer is intended for driving nails. 

Reference Work: Study the methods of work of several 
successful men in your town and classify the qualities 
that have made them succeed. Does any man who is 
careless and inattentive, and always asking help of oth- 
ers, ever get to be a foreman or a superintendent? Has 
travel or reading helped make these men successful? 
Are they systematic? Who are the men who are will- 
ing to accept responsibility and to "deliver the goods?" 
Are they the successful men or the failures? Would 
it hurt you to spend a few minutes daily in inspecting 
the stain table, the tool case, or the lumber rack, re- 
porting the conditions you find to your teacher, and put- 
ting things in order for him? The habits you will form, 
if you keep a note book and do such work systematically 
and faithfully, will doubtless be as valuable to you as 
any tool practice that you will ever get. You will have 
started your career as a foreman and superintendent. 
Read, Control of Mind and Body and Mind and Work, 
by Luther H. Gulick, 



CHAPTER II 

Drawing 

Before you can make any project you must know the size 
and shape of every part that enters into its construction. You 
must also know how the parts are assembled. Properly made 
working drawings will show all this. Hence, when making a 
new model, it is wise to proceed as follows: 



NAMt 
rOOT 5T00L 



G^RADt 

Scale. 



Bench No 
Date 



A55LMBLYVIEW5 
o? 

fOOT 5T00L 




Ts "I 



1. If drawings are not furnished, make one or more that will 
show the size and shape of every part, and the method 
of assembling it in the finished article. (See Figs. 1 
and 2.) 

9 



10 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



The assembly drawing (Fig. 1) should be made first. It may, or 
may not, show all the dimensions needed to construct the article. 
Its purpose is rather to show the general proportions of the parts 

DETAIL PA'RTS OF fOOT STOOL 




^IDE RAIL5 




LLG3 
Fie. 2. 



and how they are arranged and fastened. It should, however, be 
drawn to scale and give as many dimensions as possible without 
crowding. 



DRAWING 



11 



If drawings are furnished, detail each of the parts to be 
made, i. e., draw them out full size, or to a large scale, 
and note all the dimensions necessary to make them. 
(See Fig. 2.) 



BILL OF MATERIAL 
Name J01^*^.^^^^t</^ Bench Wo.„.^.... 



Material 



J.-.//^^ 






Total Cost r:?.^..SjtZ^Ccy^ 



Fig. 3. 

We do this to make sure that we really understand the drawing 
furnished us, for it is quite possible to make a beautiful copy from 
a drawing without understanding it at all. If, however, we make 



12 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

detailed drawings of the parts from the assembly used, we must, 
of necessity, read the drawing. 

3. From the assembly used make out a bill of materials 
(Fig. 3). 

We should never neglect this matter of making out a bill of ma- 
terials for it again compels us to read our drawing. 

Pointers : 

1. A working drawing should give all the dimensions needed 

to construct the article. 

2. Keep your pencils sharp. 

Uncover about J^' of the lead with the knife, but sharpen the 
lead on a piece of sand paper or a file. 



Fig. 4. 

3. The T-square is used as a guide in drawing horizontal 
lines. 

Note: In all this work, the head of the T-square should be held 



DRAWING 



13 



firmly against the left hand end of the drawing board. If you 
are left handed, you will, of course, use the right hand end of 
the board. 

The triangles are used in combination with the T-squarc 
to draw: 

(a) Vertical lines. 

(b) Angles of 45, 60, 30, 15, and 75 degrees with the horizontal. 



Fig. 5. 



5. Lay out a plate by means of long, light, indefinite lines. 
(See Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 1.) As shown by these figures, 
the steps to be taken are as follows : 

(1) Locate and draw lightly and of indefinite length 
the main horizontal lines. (See Fig. 4.) 

(2) Locate and draw the main vertical lines. These 
lines should also be light and of indefinite length. 
(See Fig. 5.) 



14 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



1=- 



■ir 



~=r 



-?: 



Fig. 6. 



-K 



E^I 



Name 
Foot Stool 



im 



m 



Grade 
Scale 



M 



«:] 



iw= 



Bench No 
Date 






Fig. 7. 




DRAW IMG 



IS 



(3) Block in all the diagonal lines, arcs of circles and 
other details. (See Fig. 6.) 

(4) Go over the outlines of the figure with a heavy 
line. Circles and arcs of circles should be drawn 
over first. (See Fig. 7.) 

(5) Dimension and let- 
ter the plate. (See 
Fig. 1.) Note the 
title strip used. The 
spacing of the guide 
lines for the letter- 
ing is shown in Fig. 
4. Fig. 8 shows a 
Perspective or pic- 
ture view of the fin- Fig. 8. 
ished stool. 

6. Study the conventions used in dimensioning drawings as 
shown in Fig. 9. Study also Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, and note: 
(1) That the arrow points are placed at the limits 
of the space being dimensioned. 





2. KH K4 



— £1 




Fig. 9. 



(2) That in dimensioning a series of spaces the dimen- 
sions are, if possible, placed in one line and 
summed up just outside that line. (Fig. 2.) 



16 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

(3) That the dimensions should not be crowded 

(4) That a dimension is never placed upon a center 
line or a line of the object. 

(5) That dimensions are kept off the figure as much 
as possible. 

7. A scale drawing is one in which all the parts are drawn 

proportionately larger or smaller than the object. 

8. The scale of a drawing should always be stated. 

9. The dimensions placed upon a drawing always indicate 

the finished size of the object no matter what scale is 
used. 



-^MBCDLFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
i>l234567890 -b^|p~?j g 3| 

^ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
Fig. 10. 

10. Letters and figures must be carefully made, if the plate 

is to look well. 

(1) Equal height, equal slant and even spacing are the 
first essentials in good lettering. 

(2) Standard capitals are -i^" high. The first alphabet 

(Fig. 10) illustrates a simple Gothic vertical 
alphabet. After this has been mastered the sec- 
ond example of the same alphabet, with serifs 
added, may be used. 

(3) Standard figures are yi" high with fractions 
double height. 

11. The usual method of placing views is shown in Fig. 1. 

The plan view is placed above and is what one would 



DRAWING 17 

see if he were above the above object and looked 
dovi^n. 

The end view shows the object as it would appear if 
one were looking at it from the position that it occu- 
pies on the plate. 

Two views will often show all that one needs to know 
about an object in order to construct it. 

12. Note the conventional lines shown in Fig. 11. 

~ " Pencil line — for lay-out. 

—'^——————— ——'——— Visible outline. 

— .— Invisible outline. 

^— Dimension line. 

— Center line. 

Projection or witness line. 



Fig. 11. 

13. The title of the drawing should tell: 

(1) The name of the article. 

(2) The scale of the drawing. 

(3) Who made the drawing. 

(4) The date it was made. 

(5) Any other items, e. g., the number of the student's 
bench, the name of the school, etc., that may be of 
service to the user of the drawing. 

Do not be afraid of putting too much into the 
title of a drawing, or of putting too many notes 
on a plate. 
Why? 

14. A good working drawing is one that tells everything 

necessary to construct the article. 

All letters and figures must be legible. 

All lines clear, sharp, and not confusing. 



18 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



15. Look up the following topics: 

(1) "Sections." Find out when and why section views 
are used. What are "revolved" sections? Define 
"cross-hatching." 

(2) Use of architect's scale. 

(3) Making of tracings. 

(4) Making of blueprints. 




Fig. 12. 



(5) Find out how to construct a regular hexagon. 

(a) When one side is given; 

(b) When the distance across the points is given ; 

(c) When the distance across the flats is g^ven; 
Learn the draftsman's method (see Fig. 12) ; 
the method of "Euclidian" geometry; the 
method of the carpenter who uses his steel 
square. Ask some good mechanic to help 
you. 



DRAWING 



19 



(6) Find how to construct a regular octagon when the 
problem presents itself in each of the ways men- 
tioned in the case of the hexagon. 

Note the solution given in Fig. 12. 
How many other solutions can you find? 

(7) Draw a triangle (Fig. 13) with sides in the ratio 
of 3, 4, and 5 and note that one of the angles is a 
right angle. Why? 

Ask the mason or the carpenter when and where he 
uses this theorem. 




Fig. 13. 




Fig.l4. 



(8) To construct a triangle with angles of 30", 60° 
and 90°. 

(a) Draw a semicircle. 

(b) With center at B, and a radius equal to the 
radius of the circle, describe an arc cutting 
the semicircle at C. 

(c) Draw the lines AC, CB, and AB. 

The resulting triangle has angles of 30°, 60°, 
and 90° as shown in Fig. 14. Why? 

(9) Find how to bisect a line; an angle. 

Ask some good mechanic what other geometrical 
problems he finds most useful. 



CHAPTER III 

Measuring and Laying-out Tools 

It is impossible to over-emphasize the value of properly 
"laying out" one's work. If his lines are wrong, the workman 
stands a poor chance of cutting things to fit. 

The two most important rules to remember in laying out 
all work may be stated briefly as follows : 

1. Measure, gage, and square all spaces and all lines from 

fixed starting points or surfaces. 

The working face, the joint edge, and the end first squared are 
always used for these purposes by mechanics. Why? See Rules 
for squaring stock to dimensions, Chapter VII. 

2. Knife lines and gage lines should be used when one 

wishes to do accurate work. 

These lines can be felt as well as seen. Properly made, they 
represent the first cut as well as the lay-out of the job. There are 
some exceptions to this rule, e. g. bevels and chamfers should be 
laid out with pencil lines. Why? 

The Rule— How to Use 

1 . In pointing ofT a number of spaces along a line, measure 

them all from one starting point. 

For example, do not measure part of them from one end of a 
board and part from the other. The piece may be too long or 
too short. 

2. In pointing off accurate measurements, a knife or needle 

point should be used. 

The knife point is used in the shop and the needle point in the 
drafting room. For rough work a pencil point will often do. 

3. All thick edge rules, e. g., the carpenter's pocket rule 

(See Fig. 15), should be turned upon edge when used 

20 



MEASURING AND LAYING-OUT TOOLS 



21 



in measuring, so that the lines will run down to the 

work. 

Some rules, e. g. the architect's scale, have thin edges to accom- 
plish this same purpose. 
4. Always measure in the direction intended, not at an angle 

to it. 

For example, in measuring the length of a board, apply the rule 
to a long edge of the board or along a line parallel to it. 






■■■'■■■■■■■'■■'^^■'■■■'",i,ii 



RULL 

THUMB SCEEW 

jT'li" 'i^'"U "'W 
spuk 

MASKING GAGE 





5UBING T- 
BEVLL 

WING BIVIDI^. 
Fig. 15. 

5. In pointing off short spaces (i. e., those within the limits 
of the rule) do not move the rule, for with every setting 
of the rule errors may occur. ^ 

The Try-Square — How to Use 

1. The try-square is composed of a beam and a blade set at 
right angles to each other. (See Fig. 15.) 



22 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

2. It is used, (a) to test right angles, and (b) as a guide 

for the knife or pencil in drawing lines at right angles 
to a surface, usually across the grain of wood. 

3. In laying out work or testing angles, always keep the 

beam against either the face side or the joint edge of 
the work. 

For an explanation of the terms, "face side" and "joint edge," 
see Rules for squaring stock to dimensions, Chapter VII. 

4. In laying out work with a try-square and knife the lines 

should be run so that they will not show upon the fin- 
ished siuiaces. 

The blade is graduated (See Fig. IS) so that lines can be started 
and stopped at any desired distances. Therefore, draw the cross 
fines first and the gage lines afterward in laying out mortises, 
tenons, gains, etc. 

Notes : 

(1) The blade of the try-square can be, and often is used as a 
straight-edge or as a rule. These are, however, accidental 
and not fundamental uses. There are other tools for these 
purposes. 

(2) One large try-square is very useful and should be found in 
every well equipped shop. 

The Marking Gage— How to Use 

1. The marking gage is composed of a beam, a head, a spur, 

and a thumb screw. (See Fig. 15.) 

2. The marking gage is used to make lines parallel to an 

edge, usually in the direction of the grain of the wood. 

3. When using, always keep the head of the gage against 

the "face side," or the "joint edge" of your work. (See 
Rules for squaring stock to dimensions. Chapter VII.) 

4. For accurate work test the setting of the gage with the 

rule. 



MEASURING AND LAYING-OUT TOOLS 23 

The spur may be bent or sharpened so that the distance from the 
point to the head is more or less than the reading on the beam. 

5. When using the gage roll the beam over so that the spur 

will drag. 

6. Do not attempt to gage a line on a board without pressing 

the end of the board firmly against something rigid. 
7 Avoid running gage lines so that they will show upon 
the finished work. (See Rule 4, The Try-Square— How 
to use.) 

8. In laying out chamfers and all cuts not at right angles to 

the surface, a pencil gage should be used. Why? 

9. In gaging for joints always use very light lines and set 

the gage exact 

There are times, however, when one should set the gage "strong 
and run a heavj' gage line. c. g. when gaging for width. The saw 
can then be made to cut to the center of the gage Ime and one or 
two strokes with the plane wUl bring the piece to exact width and 
just remove the gage line. (See notes on sawing, Chapter IV.) 

10. The gage is an edge tool. The spur must, therefore, be 

kept sharp. 
Reference Work: It wiU be interesting to look up the 
sUtting gage, the pencil gage, the mortise gage, the 
butt gage, the panel, the surface and bit gages. Any 
tool catalog wUl show all of these, and it will not be 
difficult to learn their uses. 

The T-Bevel 

1. The T-Bevel is composed of a beam and an adjustable 

blade. (See Fig. 15.) 

2. It is used to lay out and test angles other than right angles. 
Reference Work: Learn how to set the T-bevel for 45°, 

and for 30° and 60^ using the steel square as a guide. 

Hints: 

(1) The angle that the diagonal of a square makes 
with its sides is an angle of 45*. 



24 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

(2) Look up Fig. 14, Chapter II, and see if you can 
apply the figure so as to use the steel square to 
set for a 30° angle. 

Note that in this figure the hypotenuse is the diam- 
eter of the circle, while one side of the triangle is 
equal to one-half the diameter of the circle, and 
that one angle is 90°, the angle of the steel square. 
If you fail to see it, ask some good mechanic to 
show you the trick. 

The Steel or Framing Square 
The steel square may be of any size. It is used in the man- 
ual training shop largely to test angles, and in setting the T- 
bevel. The carpenter finds many other uses for it. It is espe- 
cially useful to him in laying out rafters and stair stringers. 
Let the class send to any manufacturer of framing squares 
and ask for a book of instructions on how to use them. 

The Dividers 
The dividers, or compasses, are constructed in various 
ways, but the so-called wing dividers are found in most shops. 
(See Fig. 15.) They are used: 

1. To lay out circles or arcs of circles. 

2. To space off equal distances. 

3. To scribe lines parallel to an irregular edge or surface. 

Reference Work: Look up: 

Trammels, calipers, level, plumb-bob, use of chalk line. 

Topics for home study: Look up and try to construct 
apparatus to measure (a) temperature, (b) time, (c) 
steam pressure, (d) quantity of liquids, (e) density of 
liquids. Try to make a balance to weigh (1) ounces 
accurately, (2) pounds accurately, (a) up to 10 lbs., 
(b) up to 200 lbs. 



CHAPTER IV 



Hand Saws 

Crosscut and rip saws. Woodworkers use two types of 
saws, one to cut across the grain, the other to cut length- 
wise of the grain of wood. They are called, respectively, 
crosscut and rip saws. 

The saw kerf. The opening that either saw makes (due 
to its thickness and the set of the teeth) in passing 
thru a board is called its kerf. 

Since this kerf has width it must always be considered and an 
allowance made when getting out material or cutting joints. 
Can you get two six-inch pieces out of one twelve inches long? 
Why? 

END or BOARD 



5A.W 



/ 



"WASTE 



\KNirE UKL 




.UEK15HED 5T32EAX: ^ 



Fig. 16. 



3. Always keep the kerf in the waste stock. 

You should always try to saw to the center of the knife or gage 
line. (See (a) Fig. 16.) If you do the work accurately, you can 
see the burnished streak left by the knife or gage line after the 
sawing is complete. (See (b) Fig 16.) 

4. The teeth of the crosscut saw are filed to a point. (See 

Fig. 17.) 

These points are arranged to come alternately, first over one side 

of the blade and then over the other. This is done to cause the 

25 



26 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



teeth to cut the fiber of the wood first at the limits of the kerf, 
just as the spur of the auger bit first cuts a circle on the wood 
before the lip removes any shavings ; and for the same reason, 
namely, to prevent tearing the grain of the wood. After the 
points of the teeth have severed the fiber of the wood, the backs 
of the teeth crumble and carry out the wood of the kerf in the 
form of sawdust. 

The rip saw has teeth filed to a cutting edge. (See Fig. 
17.) They are formed like chisels and cut in the same 
way. 



PLAN 



PLAN 





TRDNT 

CROSSCUT SAW 



TE.04T 

mp SAW 






Fig. 17. 



A dull saw, either crosscut or rip, is put into condition by : 

(1) Jointing the te^th, i. e. running a file over the teeth length- 
wise of the saw to bring them all to the same length. 

(2) Setting the teeth, i. e. bending just the very points of the 
teeth alternately to the right and to the left. This is done 
to prevent the saw bindmg in the kerf. A saw requires more 
set to work well in soft, wet wood than in hard, dry wood. 
Why? 

(3) Filing ihc teeth to correct shape. 

Importauit: Wherever accurate sawing is required all 
lines should be run with the knife or marking gage. 
Either tool, when sharp, opens somewhat the fiber of 
the wood, forrair^g a V-shaped groove with burnished 
sides. After sawing, these burnished surfaces should 
show. (See (b) Fig. 16.) 



HAND SAWS 27 

Reference Work : Look up and report upon the following : 

Compass, keyhole, bow-turning and coping saws. Also 
the back saw and the miter box. Make a collection 
of pictures taken from trade catalogs showing as many 
varieties of saws as possible. Write to Henry Diston 
& Sons, Philadelphia, and ask for their Hand Book on 
Saws. It describes the manufacture and explains the 
use and care of both saws and files. It is free to schools 
and teachers. 



CHAPTER V 

Planes 
Fig. 18 shows the type of plane that is commonly used to 
smooth and true the broad surfaces, edges, and ends of boards. 




Fig. 18. 



lA, double plane iron; 1, single plane iron; 2, plane iron cap; 3, cap 
screw ; 4, lever cap ; 5, lever cap screw ; 6, frog complete ; 7, "Y" ad- 
justing lever; 8, adjusting nut; 9, lateral adjusting lever; 10, frog 
screw; 11, plane handle; 12, plane knob; 13, handle bolt and nut; 
14, knob bolt and nut; 15, plane handle screw; 16, plane bottom; 
46, frog adjusting screw. 

Adjustments 
This plane has four principal adjustments: 

The thickness of shaving taken is regulated by turning 
the adjusting nut (No. 8, Fig. 18). The direction to 
turn this nut can only be learned by trial for planes 
differ in this respect. 

28 



PLANES 



29 



The plane is made to take shavings of equal thickness at 
both edges by means of the lateral adjusting lever 
(No. 9). 

The cap or breaker iron (No. 2) can be moved back from, 
or down close to, the cutting edge of the plane iron 
(No, 1) according as one wishes to take thick or thin 
shavings. 

The purpose of this cap iron is to break over the shavings, thus 
preventing the splitting action that would occur in front of the 
blade whenever the grain happened to run down into the wood. 
When the surface is very cross-grained or curly, this splitting 
action cannot be entirely prevented. It can, however, be reduced 
to a minimum by moving this breaker iron down to within 1/64" 
or less of the cutting edge and then taking very thin shavings. 




SHAPE or CUTTING 
EDGE or JACK PLANE 
IRON 

FisT. 19. 



5HAPE or CUTTING 

EDGE or SMOOTH. 

PLANE 120H 

Fig. 20. 




SHAPE or cumNQ 

EDGE or JOIMTEU. 
PLANE lEOW 



Fig. 21. 



On the best planes the mouth opening may be reduced by 
moving the frog (No. 6) forward. 

This should be done only when the grain is very troublesome and 
very thin shavings must be taken. 

Shape of the Cutting Edge 

Figures 19, 20, and 21 show the shapes of the cutting 
edges of the three principal planes. 

In each of the above the iron should be straight, or very nearly so, 
from X to Y. 



30 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

USES OF PLANES 

Surface Planing 

The jack plane is about 14" long and is used to "rough 
out" the work. Its cutting edge (Fig. 19) is made 
slightly "crowning," hence it will take a shaving that 
is thicker in the center than at the edges. In use, run 
the center of the plane over the high spots, holding the 
sole firmly on the work. 

Note : By sharpening the cutting edge about as one would 
sharpen the cutting edge of the jointer plane, by setting the cap 
iron close to this edge, and by taking thin shavings, this plane 
can be made to do the work of the smooth plane and the jointer. 



rWINDlNG STRIPS 





BOA RD IN WIND BOARD OUT OF WIND 

Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 

The smooth plane, which is about 8" long, is used to follow 
the jack plane upon the broad surfaces. Its cutting edge 
should be kept very sharp and nearly straight (See Fig. 
20) with only the corners slightly rounded back. The 
cap iron should be adjusted very close to the cutting 
edge and the mouth opening kept small. 

The first broad surface planed is called the "working 
face" (or face side) and is always given a "witness 
mark" by which it may be distinguished. This work- 
ing face should be made not only a smooth surface, but 
also a true plane, i. e., free from warp and wind. It can 
be tested (a) by laying it upon a true surface, (b) by 
means of a straight edge held not only lengthwise and 



PLANES 31 

crosswise, but diagonally as well, (c) by means of 

"winding strips." These are strips with parallel edges 

that are laid across the board near its ends. By sighting 

across from one "strip" to the other it is easy to tell 

when their top edges are in the same plane and hence 

whether or not there is any wind in the board. 

In figure 22 the winding strips show that the surface 

is in "wind." 

In figure 23 they show that the surface is not in wind. 

Edge Planing 

1. The jack plane or the jointer should be used in edge plan- 

ing. 

Both of these planes have their blades sharpened slightly crown- 
ing. (Figs. 19 and 21.) 

The jointer, which is about 24" long, should be used when mak- 
ing glue joints or edges that must be very straight. It may be 
used to do the whole job, or it may be kept extra sharp and finely 
adjusted and used only to take the last few shavings. 

2. See that each plane is adjusted so that the center of the 

blade projects slightly while the edges are still even 
with or slightly above the sole of the plane. 

3. Test the edge of the board with the try-square, holding 

the beam against the working face and the blade across 
the edge. (See Fig. 24.) 

4. With the center of the plane over the high side, take a 

shaving, keeping the sole of the plane firmly pressed 
against the edge of the board. 

Fig. 25 shows what takes place. Since the center of the plane iron 
projects farther than the edges, the shaving taken is thicker on 
one edge than the other, and each shaving taken with the plane 
held in this position brings the edge nearer square with the face 
than before. A few such shavings will bring the edge of the 
board square with its working face. 



32 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



5. The first edge planed is called the joint edge. It is always 
given a witness mark by which it may be distinguished. 

End Planing 
If you plane straight across the end of a board you are 
sure to splinter the farther corner. Hence you must 
either : 



BLADE 



■rk''T''^i'i^i'( 



BOARD 




— ^EAM 



■■WOI^KING 
TACE or BOARD 



Fig. 24. 




OLt OF 
PLANE 

CUTTING 

EDGE or PLANE 



—HIGH SIDE, 
or BOARD 



Fig. 25. 



1. Plane from both edges toward the center, stopping in both 

cases before the far edge is reached, or 

2. Put a stick behind the far edge to support the fiber of the 

wood. 

If the board is wide enough, the farther corner may be chamfered 
off to prevent splintering in planing. This method is not, how- 
ever, approved by most mechanics. Why? 

Unless the end of the board is to show, no planing should be 
required. The saw should finish the job. 

Note : Where one must hold his work with one hand while 
planing the end, a block plane (Fig. 26) is needed, otherwise the 
jack or smooth plane may be used. 

Pointers : 

1. The plane iron cap must always be put on the flat side of 

the plane iron. 

2. The plane iron cap must be screwed tight or it will slip. 



PLANES 



33 



In assembling the plane, be sure that the plane iron is 
down in place before turning down the lever clamp. 
If it has to be forced, something is wrong. 

For fast work on soft, straight grained wood set the plane 
iron cap back and make the mouth opening ample. 
What to do when the grain is troublesome: 
1. See that the cutting edge is very sharp. 

Set the plane iron cap close to the cutting edge. 

Make the mouth opening as narrow as possible. 

Take thin shavings. 

Reference Work: 

1. The block plane (Fig. 26) has no cap iron. Why? 

2. Collect and mount pictures of as many varieties of 
planes as possible, and learn the use of each. 

3. Look up especially the rabbet plane. 



4. 




Fig. 26. 



1, single plane iron; 4, lever cap; 5, lever cap screw; 6, frog 
complete; 7, adjusting lever; 8, adjusting nut; 9, lateral adjusting 
lever; 16, plane bottom; 21, eccentric plate; 22, linger rest knob. 
Experimental Work : Take three shavings from the edge 
of a %" soft pine board 30" long, one to be of even 
thickness on each edge ; one to be thicker on the right 
edge ; and one to be thicker on the left. 

Do this by sharpening the plane iron crowning, and holding the 
center of the plane, first, over the center of the piece, second, 
over the right edge and third, over the left edge. 



CHAPTER VI 
Grinding and Sharpening Tools 

Grinding is the first operation in sharpening such bevel edge 
tools as plane irons and chisels. The more important points 
to remember are : 

1. Grind plane irons and chisels to an angle of about 22°. 

That is about the right angle for general use. If one is working 
altogether in hard wood the angle may be made a little greater, 
while for soft wood, it could be made somewhat less. 

2. Grind the edge of both plane irons and chisels perfectly 

straight and square across. 

Whatever crown is desired on the plane iron is given while 
whetting on the oilstone. 

3. In grinding keep the stone wet. 

A dry stone glazes quickly and will soon heat the tool so as to 
draw its temper. If the edge turns blue the temper has been 
drawn, and one must then grind below the blued part before the 
tool will hold its edge. 

While the stone should be kept wet when in use, it should not 
stand in water. Why? 

A dry emery or carborundum wheel can be used to grind tools, 
but in this case the tool should be dipped in water occasionally 
and great care exercised not to "burn" the steel. 
Notes : If the stone is kept round and true a block of wood can 
be fastened to the back of the grindstone frame (See Fig. 27) 
and the grinding done, both rapidly and well, by pressing the 
plane iron down between the block and the stone. It is not diffi- 
cult to true a grindstone with a piece of gas pipe and if it is 
kept true, the labor involved is not great. 
Whetting. The grindstone or tool grinder does not put a 
proper cutting edge on a plane iron or any edge tool. 
This is done with the oilstone. The method is as 
follows : 

34 



GRINDING AND SHARPENING TOOLS 35 

1. See that the surface of the stone is well oiled with a good 
grade of machine oil. 

The oil prevents glazing of the stone. Be careful to use machine 
oil, as any drying oil such as linseed oil, will ruin the stone. Why? 
If, thru mistake, this should happen, the stone can be burned out, 
but great care must be exercised in introducing and withdrawing 
the stone from the fire to avoid cracking. 
After using, the stone should be wiped dry. 

Note: There is a great advantage gained by mounting an oil- 
stone loosely in an iron box with an oil saturated felt pad under 
the stone, for, by simply turning the stone over, a well oiled sur- 
face is presented. Otherwise, one must always have a filled oil 
can at hand. 



-ALTEENATt POSITIONS 




^_^-^- I ^^ / -mo t 

I GEINDINC/ \ T^SIT10n\i 



OitSTONl 



Fig. 27. Fig. 28. 



In the case of plane irons and chisels, whet on the beveled 
side until a slight "burr" can be felt on the flat side. 

(See position A, Fig. 28.) 

The whetting angle should be slightly greater than the grinding 
angle as shown in position A, Fig. 28. 

Turn the tool over and whet one or two strokes on the flat 
side. 

Be sure that the plane iron or chisel is flat down upon the stone, 
as shown in position B, Fig. 28. Why? 

Whet first on one side and then on the other until all the 
wire edge or burr is removed, being sure always to hold 
the tool flat upon the flat side. 



36 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

5. A block of wood, a piece of leather, or the hand should be 

used to remove the last traces of the wire edge. 

6. The cutting edge of the chisel should be kept straight and 

square across from side to side. In the case of the plane 
iron the proper amount of "crown" or curvature can be 
given by pressing harder first on one end of the cutting 
edge and then on the other. 

7. The whetting surface of the oilstone should be kept true 

and smooth, otherwise it is difficult to sharpen tools 
properly. 

If holes are worn into the stone they may be removed by grind- 
ing the stone down on a piece of emery cloth tacked upon a flat 
surface. 

Remember that the chisel and the plane iron are beveled 
on one side only. This means that, in whetting, they 
must be held flat down upon the stone on the flat side. 

Reference and Experimental Work: 

1. By means of a strong reading glass study the con- 
dition of the cutting tdgQ of your plane from the 
first grinding until the last trace of the wire edge 
is removed. 

2. Devise a set of experiments to test the difference 
between linseed oil and machine oil. Suppose the 
labels were lost, could you tell one from the other? 

3. Collect the raw material and try to make and refine 
(a) a good grade of linseed oil, (b) a good grade 
of machine oil. 

4. How arc grindstones and oilstones made? Write 
to the Pike Mfg. Co., Pike, N. H., and to the Car- 
borundum Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y., for literature. 



CHAPTER VII 

Squaring Stock to Dimensions 
The best mechanics observe the following order in planing 
a board to dimensions: 

1. Plane a "working face" and mark with a "face" or "wit- 

ness" mark. 

A working face should be a true plane surface, i. e. smooth, out 
of wind, and not warped. See winding strips, scraping, and sand- 
ing. 

It is a fundamental principle among mechanics that, since mis- 
takes are always likely to occur, all measurements, all gaged lines, 
and all squared lines in any particular direction, or upon any par- 
ticular surface, are to be made from one starting place. This, 
then, is the reason for establishing the working faces and for fol- 
lowing the order of steps as are here stated. The witness marks 
are placed on these faces so that they can always be distinguished. 

2. Plane a "joint edge" and put on a witness mark. 

A joint edge should be straight from end to end and square witli 
the face side. Test for squareness with the try-square. Sight 
down the edge or use a sxraigm-cage to test for straightness. 

3. Gage and plane to width. 

4. Gage and plane to thickness. This step may often be 

omitted. (See notes on judgment, following.) 

5. Square one end. (See sawing and end planing, Chapters 

IV and V) 

6. Measure for length, measuring from the end just squared. 

7. Square lines about the board at the required length, using 

knife and try-square. 

8. Saw to the center of the knife line, keeping the saw kerf 

in the waste stock. 

Test for squareness both from the working face and the joint edge. 
Tf the knife line was properly made and the ?aw handled skill- 
fully the end of the piece will show a burnished streak all about 
the cut. (See (b) Fig. 16.) 

37 



38 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

9. Give the end a planed finish. 

Judgment in using the rules. The boy, as the mechanic, 
should always follow the above order of procedure. If 
he omits any step, it should be because the project he 
is making does not require him to perform that step, 
e. g., if the end of a piece does not show, it need not be 
given a planed finish. Again, if the thickness is unim- 
portant, it is not necessary that it be planed to exact 
dimensions. In a word, then, one should understand 
the complete method of planing to dimensions, but he 
would not be expected to perform unnecessary opera- 
tions simply for the sake of following a rule. Judgment 
when and when not to follow a rule, as well as skill, 
distinguishes the true mechanic. 

Pointers : 

1. Do not forget to put witness marks on your working face 

or your joint edge. Why? 

2. The joint edge must be not only square with the working 

face; it must also be straight, otherwise lines squared 
from it will not be parallel. 

3. The ends must be square with both the face side and the 

joint edge. 

4. Do not be afraid to use your try-square and your rule. 

Reference Work: The matter of squaring stock to dimen- 
sions is of such fundamental importance that we would 
urge you to: 

1. Ask, say, ten good mechanics whether or not they 

follow the rules for planing as stated above. If 
not, find out their reasons for changing the order. 

2. Look up this matter in ten text books (or as many 

as you can find). If the order is changed, find out 
the reason. 



•A 



CHAPTER Vni 

Miscellaneous Tool Processes 

Duplicate Parts 

It is very important to note when parts are duplicates or 

"pairs," and to work them together, for time is thus saved and 

mistakes avoided. Hence, in making duplicate parts proceed 

as follows : 

1. Plane a face side on each piece in turn. 

2. Plane a joint edge on each piece in turn. 

3. Gage each of the pieces for width with one setting of the 

gage. 

4. Plane each piece in turn to width. 

5. Gage each of the pieces to thickness with one setting of the 

gage. 

6. Plane each piece in turn to thickness. 

7. Square one end of each piece in turn. 

8. Assemble all the pieces with their joint edges up and their 

squared ends together, 
o. Measure all distances to cuts, mortises, holes, etc., from 

the squared end and along the joint edge of one of the 

pieces. Then transfer these measurements to the other 

pieces by means of the try-square. 
10. Separate the parts, finish the lay-out and the cutting of 

each piece in turn. 

Notes : 

(a) Sometimes parts are duplicates only in certain particulars, 
e. g., thickness, length, or locations for mortises, holes, etc. 
In such cases proceed as above, making the necessary omis- 
sions. 

(b) Sometimes it is better to get out a number of small parts all 
in one piece and then cut the piece into the proper lengths. 

39 



40 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

Reference Work: Ask a carpenter how he lays out the 
"plates" for a house. Ask him to show you other places 
where he has to deal with pairs and duplicate parts. 

Use of the Chisel 

1. The cutting edge of the chisel is made straight and square. 

Otherwise it is ground and sharpened like a plane iron. 
Caution: Keep the flat side flat. 

2. Always use a mallet rather than a hammer to drive the 

chisel. Why? 

3. Always take thin shavings when cutting to, or close to, 

a line. 

If thick shavings are taken lengthwise of the grain, the wood 

will split and follow the direction of the grain. If thick shavings 

are taken across the grain, the wedging action causes the chisel 

to spread the cut in both directions and so to crowd over the line 

intended. 

4. If possible give the chisel a sliding or shearing motion 

when cutting across the end grain of wood. 

Examine the cutting edge of your chisel with a reading glass and 

you will discover the reason. 

5. In cutting "thru" mortises, dadoes, etc., work from both 

surfaces toward the center of the piece. Why? 
Reference Work: Look up and report the meaning of the 
terms: tang chisel, socket chisel, firmer chisel, fram- 
ing chisel and bevel-edge chisel. Make sketches and 
describe the special advantages and uses of each. 

Form Work 
Table and chair legs, hall trees, the sides of magazine racks, 
writing desks, etc., are often so designed as to leave no edges 
parallel with their vertical axes. It often happens, however, 
that mortises or screw holes must be located at right angles 
to the vertical axis. While it is possible to lay out such work 
from a vertical axis, or by other special means, it is usually 
better : 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOL PROCESSES 



41 



1. To establish a face side and a joint edge. 

2. To lay out all mortises, cuts, or screw holes, and as much 

of the outline as possible from these two surfaces before 
cutting them away. 

Cutting to Curved Outlines 

A narrow bladed saw such as the compass or the turning 
saw is the proper tool to use in cutting to an irregular or 
curved outline It is always possible, however, to work out 
such pieces with a common saw, a knife, and a chisel. 



CH15E,L 



aAWKEET 





ViA&TL 



Fig. 29. 



Fig. 30. 



Fig. 29 shows how this should be done. One must always 
observe the grain of the wood, and cut in the direction of the 
fiber, not against it. A half-round 12" bastard file is often 
the best tool with which to finish such cuts. 

In paring to the line A B (Fig. 30), start the chisel in at 
the end A and proceed toward B. Why not begin at B? 
(Note the direction of the grain of the wood.) The work 
should be laid out on both sides so that the chiseling may be 
done from both surfaces toward the center. It is also best to 
clamp your work on top of a cutting board so that you can 
use both hands in guiding and forcing the chisel to its work. 



42 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



Use of Scraper 

There are cross-grained or curly places on nearly all pieces 
of wood that will tear somewhat under the plane no matter 
how skillfully it may be used. Such places must be made 
smooth before the stain and other finish is applied. Sand 
paper may be used to do this on soft woods, but on hard 
wood the scraper is the proper tool to use. For flat surfaces 
most cabinet makers sharpen their scrapers square across 
as shown at A (Fig. 31), but make the edge slightly crowning 
from end to end, as shown at B (Fig. 31). 




Fig. 31. 



Fig. 32. 



J> 



The sharpening may be done either with a grindstone or 
with a file, followed by the oilstone. After the edges have 
been made perfectly sharp they should be turned with a bur- 
nisher (a hard, smooth piece of steel) so that they look some- 
what as shown at C (Fig. 32). This is done by passing the 
burnisher, with considerable pressure, lengthwise over the 
edge of the scraper, tilting it slightly as the work proceeds. 

In use, the scraper is held at an angle of about 60° with the 
surface of the work. If it is sharp and the edge properly 
turned it will cut like a plane. Inexperienced persons are 
often tempted to try to make the scraper do the work of the 
plane. This is a mistake for if much material is removed 
the surface will become very uneven due to the fact that the 
scraper tends to cut more on the soft than on the hard spots. 
To counteract this tendency, the scraping should be done so 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOL PROCESSES 43 

that the strokes of the scraper will cross one another at an 
angle. 

Some mechanics prefer to sharpen their scrapers as shown 
at D (Fig. 32) and to turn the edge as shown at E. A scraper 
sharpened in this way will take a very heavy shaving and 
should, therefore, be held in some sort of a handle or frame. 

Use of Sand Paper 

1. Never use sand paper until all the work with the edge 

tools is finished. Why? 

2. Always sand lengthwise of the grain, otherwise you will 

make cross-scratches on your work. 

3. On flat surfaces the sand paper should be held on a block. 

The block helps to overcome the tendency of the paper 
to cut more on the soft than on the hard spots. On 
irregular shapes special blocks or the fingers must be 
used. 

4. Never attempt to fit joints by using sand paper or a file. 

Reference Work: 

1. Find out how sand paper is made. How it is graded. 

2. Look up the manufacture of files, how they are 
graded, and when and how they should be used. 

Nailing 
For careful nailing observe the following: 

1. A line should be run to locate the centers of the nails. 

It is best to run this line on both sides and on both edges of the 
board. And, since the surfaces are usually "cleaned," i. e., 
planed and sand papered, before the nailing is done, these center 
lines should be very light pencil lines rather than knife or gage 
lines. 

2. Start the nails on the center lines. 

It will then be easy to tell whether or not they will go into the 
second piece without coming thru on one side or the other. In 



44 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



Fig. 33, nail A would enter piece X properly, while nail B would 
surely pass out the side. If any nails are started wrong they 
should be drawn out and started again. 

3. Clamp or hold pieces in position, i. e., so that the center 

lines for the nails will coincide. 

4. Drive the nails nearly all the way in, but leave them so 

that the claw of the hammer can easily draw them out if 
necessary. 




Fig. 33. 



5. Inspect the work, and, if the pieces are in their proper 
positions and no nails show a tendency to come thru 
anywhere, drive the nails in and set them. 

Nails hold best if they are driven at a slant for they then act like 
dovetails. It is always possible to slant nails in two directions 
without their coming thru the sides of the second piece. 

Important: Use a brad-awl for small nails and a small 
bit for larger ones whenever a nail would be likely to 
split the wood. A little paraffine, or even soap, will be 
of great help in driving nails into hard wood. The soap 
will rust the nails, however, while the paraffine will not. 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOL PROCESSES 45 

Reference Work: 

1. Look up blind or splinter nailing, toe-nailing, 

clinching. 

2. How does the carpenter hold his hammer for heavy 

nailing? 

3. Collect, mount, and label all the different nails that 

you can find. (The hardware man will very likely 
help you.) Here are a few that you should find: 
single and double-pointed tacks of various sizes 
and weights, rivets, dogs, finish, and common 
nails, brads, cut nails, copper and galvanized nails, 
furniture nails and tacks. 

4. Do the same for screws. 

It would be interesting to trace the making of a nail from 
the ore thru the blast furnace, the Bessemer converter, the 
rolling mills and the reheating and wire drawing processes to 
the stamping mills. Thence thru the packing and shipping 
departments to the freight depot, to your own town, to your 
own merchant, and to yourself. If you wish to make this 
study, if you wish to learn something of this great world of 
industry, something of the men who have developed it, some- 
thing of the priceless inheritance that they have given you, 
let me recommend that you read Inventors at Work, by Geo. 
H. lies, and also his Flame Electricity and the Camera. 

Fastening with Screws 

1. Carefully locate the centers for the screw holes in the piece 

A (Fig. 34) thru which the screv/s are to pass. 

2. Bore "body size" holes in piece A equal to or a little 

larger than the diameter of the screws just under the 
head. 

3. Clamp the pieces in position — it is well to use center lines 

to determine the proper locations — and mark the cen- 
ters in piece B. 



46 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



4. Bore core size holes in piece B equal to the diameter of 

the screws at the root of the thread. 

5. Countersink the body size hole if a flat head screw is to be 

used. 

Notes : 

(a) As with nails, paraffine or soap may be used as a lubricant 
on the threads of screws. 

(b) If you do not wish the head of the screw to show, you may 
bore a hole large enough to receive the head of the screw 
and then plug the hole. The plug cutter is a handy tool to 
use in this connection. 

FLAT HEAD SCEtW 
SOUND niAD 5CBZW>\ cCQACH OB.IAG SCSLW 
BODY SIZE HOL&. 




Fig. 34. 



1. 
2. 



Reference and Experimental Work: Look up "drive 
screws." Experiment as to the holding power of screws 
in end grain and cross grain of wood. Collect and 
mount all the different kinds and sizes of screws and 
bolts that you can find. 

Use of Hand Screws 

Hand screws are used for a great variety of purposes, e. g. : 
To force two or more pieces together while gluing. 
To hold work on the bench top while cutting mortises, 

scraping, etc. 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOL PROCESSES 



47 



3. 
4. 



To clamp pieces in position for boring holes. 

To hold, by means of two or more hand screws, pieces of 

work at almost any angle. 

When using hand screws: 
Keep the jaws parallel. 

This is accomplished by turning first the center, and then the 

outside screw. (See A and B, Fig. 35.) 

Fig. 36 shows what happens when the jaws are not kept parallel : 

(1) The pieces are not held together properly and, 

(2) The screws may be broken, due to excessive bending. 



3. 






Fig. 35. 



Fig. 36. 



Keep the jaws free from hard lumps of glue and bad scars, 
otherwise they will often mar your work. 

Before gluing parts together— so that time may be saved 
in gluing — it is always wise to clamp them together in 
their proper positions so as to be sure: (1) That every- 
thing is square and fitting properly, and (2) that the 
clamps will all work. The clamps and hand screws 
should then be taken off and piled so that they can be 
easily reached and adjusted after the glue is applied. 

Reference Work: 

1. Visit a woodworking shop and make sketches of all 
the clamping devices used. 



48 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

2. Collect and mount pictures of all the clamping 

devices that you can find. Trade catalogs will 
furnish you many examples. You can put a piece 
of tracing paper over any picture, and by tracing 
get a sketch that will do for your collection. You 
should in every such case give the name of the 
book and the page on which the illustration was 
found. 

3. What is a caul? Make a sketch of one. 

Glue 

Books that explain all about glue and how to use it are to 
be found in nearly all libraries. For this reason and to give 
you a method for research, it has been decided not to write 
much upon this matter, but rather to suggest that you investi- 
gate the subject about as follows: 

1. Secure at least three books that contain something about 

glue and how to use it. 

2. Tabulate all the statements made by the various authors. 

Note the repetitions and contradictions if any. 

3. Arrange the statements Into two groups, one telling facts 

about glue, the other how to use glue ; and arrange them 
according to their importance. 

It would be interesting to find out which author gave us the most 
information, which put his material into the clearest form, and 
the reasons each had for selecting the Information given, while 
rejecting that offered by the others. 

4. Arrange and perform a series of experiments to verify the 

statements made by the various authors, and record the 
results, whether successful or otherwise. 
Reference and experimental work: 
1. Make two glue joints — one with thoroly seasoned 
lumber, and the other with "green" lumber. Make 
the pieces of fairly good size and length. 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOL PROCESSES 49 

2. Set them away in a warm dry place where the air 

can circulate freely about them. 

3. Note what happens and draw your own conclusions. 

Would your conclusions be better if a dozen joints 
had been made with each kind of material and all 
had been treated alike? Might not one piece, for 
some unknown reason, act in an uncharacteristic 
manner? 

4. Try the same experiment, but give the glued pieces 

one or two coats of shellac or varnish before set- 
ting them away. In place of the shellac, try the 
effect of stain alone ; of filler alone. 

5. Put some oil or grease on the surface of a joint and 

then attempt to glue the parts together. Does 
the joint hold well? 

6. Why should end wood be sized before gluing? 

7. How is a "rubbed joint" made? 

8. Find out how glue is made and try to make some 

yourself. 

9. Collect as many samples of glue and cement as pos- 

sible and test their holding powers. 
Be sure to keep a record of all your experiments. Try to 
devise a good form for your notes and do not neglect the 
date. 

Verify these statements: 

1. A thick layer of glue between two surfaces will not 
hold well. The strongest joint is made by cover- 
ing both surfaces well with glue and then pressing 
them together as tightly as possible, thus forcing 
the glue into the fiber of the wood, for the hold- 
ing is done by the hundreds of little needle-like 
projections that are thus formed. 



50 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

2. Because of the fact that the needle-Uke projections 

are what hold the pieces together, the glue should 
never be chilled when it is applied, for if it is it 
will not penetrate well into the wood. Hence, the 
wood should be warmed if the very best results 
are to be obtained. 

3. The harder the wood, the thinner the glue should 

be. Why? Experiment to determine the best 
thickness of glue to use on paper, cloth, white 
pine and white oak. 

4. If glue gets onto a surface that is to be stained or 

finished, the stain will not penetrate because the 
fibers are already full of glue. Hence, before glu- 
ing work, would it be wise to stain or smear with 
soap any parts that might be stuck with the glue? 
Is there anything else that you could use in place 
of soap to protect the wood? See experiment 
No. 5. Most prepared glues will hold well if 
the parts are dry and properly fitted. They do 
not penetrate as deeply as hot glue on warm 
wood, but they dry more slowly. The inexperi- 
enced person will often get better results with the 
prepared glue than with the hot glue. Then, too, 
it is always ready for use. 

Boring Tools 

1. Look up the subject of bits and braces. 

2. What is an auger bit, a gimlet bit, a twist drill? 

3. Why will the twist drill work better in iron than the auger 

bit? 

4. What is the use of the spur on the auger bit? 

5. What does the worm do? 

6. How are sizes of auger bits marked? Sizes of gimlet bits? 

7. What is a hollow bit? 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOL PROCESSES 51 

How can you bore thru a board without splintering it on 
the farther side? 

Study the evolution of the boring tool, showing changes 
that have taken place in the cutting tool itself, in the 
method of turning it, in the method of pressing it to its 
work, in the method of holding it in the turning and 
pressing device. Start with the brad-awl, and, by means 
of pictures taken from trade catalogs, show the gradual 
changes that have taken place up to the power driven 
automatic drill and the boring mill. 

Look up rock drills. 



CHAPTER IX 

The Common Joints 

If one has mastered the fundamental uses of the rule, the 
gage, and the square in laying out work; if he understands 
how to sharpen and use his chisel, his plane, and his saw, he 
should have little difficulty in cutting any joints that his work 
may require. It is somewhat beyond the scope of this book 
to deal at length with these matters. We will, however, make 
a few suggestions. 

THE DADO JOINT 

A dado is a rectangular groove cut across the grain of a 
board (Fig. 37) into which another member is fitted. 

Laying Out the Joint 

In making all joints the lay-out of the work is of equal im- 
portance with the cutting operations. If the lines are not 
where they belong, no amount of skill with the cutting tools 
will produce good results. Hence, there is need for skill in 
the correct use of the marking gage, the try-square, the knife, 
and the rule, not occasionally, but always. Until you have 
mastered these laying-out tools you are not ready to cut joints. 
When, however, you are sure that you can run straight lines 
and measure accurately proceed as follows: 

1. Locate one side of the dado and square a knife line across 

the piece, remembering to square from the joint edge. 

2. Locate and square the other side of the dado by measure- 

ment, or better, by superposition, i. e., by placing the 
piece A upon the piece B and marking its exact thick- 
ness. 

52 



COMMON JOINTS 



53 



3. Square the lines across the edges of piece B equal to the 

depth of the dado. 

4. Set the gage to the required depth and gage between the 

two lines, on both edges. Be sure to gage from the face 
side. 

Notes. In case of duplicate parts: 

(1) Measure all distances first on one piece and then transfer 
them to the others by means of the try-square and knife. 

(2) Gage all depths with one setting of the gage and remember 
to gage and square all lines from the two "marked sur- 
faces," i. e., from the working face and the joint edge. 




Fig. 37. 



Cutting the Joint 

1. Saw to the center of the knife lines keeping the saw kerf 

in the waste stock. 

2. Chisel out the waste stock, working from both edges 

toward the center. 

3. Test the bottom of the dado witli a straight-edge to see 

that it is a true plane. 



54 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

4. If the sawing was not accurately done you must now pare 
to the center of the knife line with a chisel. 

Notes : 

1. If the dado is a wide one, mechanics often tack or clamp a 
piece of wood across the board B (See Fig. 37) so that when 
the saw is pressed against the piece, it will cut just to the 
center of the knife line. Ask some good mechanic to show you 
how he does this. 

2. If the groove does not run entirely across the board, it is 
called a gain. In this case the "blind end" of the gain must be 
bored or chiseled out and the rest of the joint sawed and 
chiseled as in the case of the dado. 

Reference Work: 

1. Ask some good mechanic to show you how he 

"gains" the treads and risers into the wall 
stringers in a flight of stairs. 

2. Look up the definition of a rabbet joint, a grooved 

joint, a forked joint, and a cogged joint and make 
a sketch of each. 

3. Find out and write up the method of making each of 

the above joints, and if you ever wish to use any 
of these joints in the construction of an article, 
be sure to try out your method first on some waste 
material. 

4. As a supplementary problem make a screen and 

a box filing case, so that all joints that are made 
as preliminary practice pieces can be mounted and 
the written record of the method filed. This col- 
lection will gradually develop into a very valuable 
exhibit. 

THE GLUE JOINT 

\. Arrange the boards so that the heart sides are alternately 
up and down. 



COMMON JOINTS 55 

This is done to counteract the effects of warping. You can tell 
the heart side by looking at the annular rings on the ends of 
the pieces. 

2. If possible, arrange them so that, after the joint is made 

you can plane all the pieces in one direction without 
splintering any of them. 

Occasionally there may be other considerations, such as sym- 
metry, beauty of grain, or defects of surface, that may outweigh 
either of the above considerations. 

3. Mark the pieces so that you can reassemble them in the 

order and positions selected. Also numbering them 1, 2, 
3, etc. 

4. "Joint" the inner edge of piece No. 1, i. e., the edge next 

to piece No. 2. 

Since no face side has been planed, no test can be appUed except 
to sight down from end to end. If, however, the board is not 
badly in wind or warped, a try-square may be used to get the 
edge at about right angles to the wide faces. 

5 Fit the edge of piece No. 2 that is to come in contact with 
piece No. 1, to the edge of piece No. 1 that has just 
been jointed. 

Piece No. 2 is not properly fitted until: (1) the wide faces of both 
boards are approximately in the same plane; and (2) the edges 
are in contact from end to end and from side to side. 

6. Plane and fit each of the remaining joints. 

7. Glue and clamp in position. 

THE MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT 

There are a great many modifications of this joint. It 
would be well to look up and make sketches of the thru 
mortise-and-tenon, the blind mortise-and-tenon, the keyed, the 
stub, the wedged, the fox, and the dove tail mortise-and-tenon. 



56 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

Lajring Out the Joint 

Remember that you are not ready to cut joints until you 
have mastered the uses of the rule, the gage, and the try- 
square, for, if the lines are not where they belong no amount 
of skill with the cutting tools will produce good results. 

In general, the lay-out of the joints should be made as fol- 
lows : 

1. Measure all distances lengthwise of the grain. 

These measurements should all be made from a fixed starting 
point, either the center of the piece, or the end first squared. In 
case of duplicate parts, measure the lengths first on one piece and 
then transfer them to the others by means of the try-square and 
knife. 

2. Scribe all cross-lines with knife and try-square. 

Work always from the working faces, and stop all lines so that 
they will not show upon the finished surfaces. The graduations 
on the try-square make this possible. 

3. Lay out the bevel cuts if there are any. 

Bevel cuts are best laid out by means of a T-bevel, altho they 
can be laid out by measurement. 

4. Run all gage lines. 

Gage always from one of the face surfaces, and in case of duplicate 
parts gage all with one setting of the gage. 

Pointers : 

(1) Always lay out the work on both sides of the board, if the 
cut is to run thru. 

(2) Plan the work so that the face sides will come together, and 
whenever possible bring the shoulders of the tenons against 
one of the face surfaces. Why? 

Cutting the Mortise 
See that the ends of the mortise are laid out with a knife 
line, and in case of a thru mortise see that the work is laid 
out on both sides. There are, of course, a number of ways to 
cut out a mortise. 



COMMON JOINTS 



57 



Some prefer to bore out the center, especially when the 
mortise is large and made in hard wood; and then, starting 
in the center, to pare out to the knife and gage lines, always 
taking thin shavings when near the lines. 

A second method is to begin in the center of the mortise 
with a V-shaped cut, the cut being taken across the grain, 
and then continue to the ends of the mortise with vertical 
cuts. The flat side of the chisel is always kept toward the 
end that is being approached. This method is especially use- 




Fig. 38. 



Fig. 39. 



ful where the chisel is as wide as the mortise, and in the cast 
of mortises that do not go thru. 

There is, however, another method that is considered best 
practice among mechanics. 

1. Set the chisel as at A (Fig. 38) and cut toward the end ot 

the mortise. 

Note that the edge of the chisel is cutting across the grain. 
After the cut has been made it will look as at B. If the mortise 
is wider than the chisel, as shown here, more than one cut must 
be made. 

2. Set the chisel in a vertical position as shov^m at C (Fig. 

39). Note that the flat side of the chisel is against the 

end of the mortise. Tap gently v/ith the mallet, thus 

forcing the chisel into the wood as shown by the dotted 

lines. 

Do not drive the chisel down deeply, for the wedge action of 

the chisel might crowd the flat of the chisel over beyond the line 



58 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

3. Set the chisel as at D, and cut toward the end of the mor- 

tise, as indicated by the dotted lines. 

4. Repeat these operations until the cut is of the required 

depth, or half way thru in case of a thru mortise. 

5. Repeat at the other end of the mortise. 

If the mortise is narrow and long it is probably best to work 
back with slanting cuts, prying out the core at each stroke of the 
chisel until within about -h" of the other end; then turn the 
chisel over so that the flat side is toward the end of the mortise 
and finish the cut. 

6. Turn the piece over, if the mortise goes thru, and repeat. 

When the ends of the mortise are cut thru, the core can be pared 
away with slanting cuts until it will crush thru. 

7. Pare out the sides and, if necessary, the ends of the mor- 

tise until they are true planes. Test these surfaces with 
the straight edge of the chisel. 

In all this work one must be careful not to mar the ends of the 
mortise by prying down over them. 

In the case of a blind mortise devise some method for test- 
ing whether or not the sides of the mortise are at right angles 
to the surface. One might use a plug with parallel sides as a 
help in the solution of this problem. 

Cutting the Tenon 

In cutting tenons the mechanic aims to saw to the center 
of the knife and gage lines so that there will be little or no 
paring to do with the chisel. 

1. Do all of the rip sawing first. 

2. Crosscut to the shoulder lines. 

Note: If the method were reversed some of the lines would be 
lost on a tenon that had four shoulders. 

3. If necessary, pare to the lines with a chisel. Never use a 

file or sand paper for this purpose. 



COMMON JOINTS 59 

Reference and Experimental Work: Look up and make 
sketches of: 

1. The plain miter and the splined miter joint. 

2. The box dove tail and the lap or drawer dove tail joint. 

3. A fished joint. 

4. Draw bolted butt joint. 

5. A matched and beaded joint. 

The encyclopedias usually contain information along this line. 
Let each member of the class select a joint; inquire of some 
good mechanics how to make it ; write up the method and then 
make a good joint. These joints, together with the written 
method used, can be mounted upon a large board. This is a 
typical illustration of the advantages gained by subdivision of 
labor and team work. No one has to look up the method of 
making more than one joint and yet, when the work is com- 
pleted, all can easily learn how to make any of the joints by 
referring to the exhibit. 



CHAPTER X 

Wood Finishing 

Wood is finished to protect it from moisture and dirt and to 
give it a color that will harmonize with its surroundings. For 
out of door work paint is usually used, but because paint con- 
ceals the grain of wood, it is seldom used on furniture. 

Staining and Polishing 
Before starting to stain or polish your work look up scrap- 
ing, sand papering, and the experimental work suggested at 
the end of this section. The complete process of staining and 
finishing is as follows: 

1. Stain the wood any desired color. Wipe out the "laps" 

with a cloth, and sand the surfaces lightly after the 
stain is dry, not enough to cut thru, but enough to 
bring out the grain. The work may then need a second 
light coat of stain. 

There are three classes of stain— water, spirit, and oil. 

1. The water stains come in a wide range of colors. They 
penetrate well and' are inexpensive, but they raise the grain 
of the wood badly, and so require a great deal of sanding. 

2. The spirit stains also come in a wide range of colors. They 
penetrate well and raise the grain of the wood but very 
little. They are, however, rather expensive. 

3. The oil stains range in price between the spirit and the 
water stains. They do not raise the grain of the wood, but 
they will not penetrate deeply. 

2. If the wood is open grained it must now be filled. 

The filler comes ground in oil. It should be thinned with 
turpentine, benzine, naptha, or gasoline, until it is about as 
thick as cream. Apply the Eller with a brush and allow it to 
set about fifteen minutes, or until it begins to look "flat". Then 
wipe oflf across the grain using burlap or shavings. 

60 



WOOD FINISHING 61 

Prepared fillers can be obtained, stained almost any desired 
color, or the natural filler can be darkened with burnt sienna, 
raw umber, Van Dyke brown, or drop black. These and many 
other colors can now be obtained in collaps'ble tubes. 

3. When dry, sand lightly; not enough to cut thru, but 

enough to make the surface feel smooth to the hand. 
Be especially careful of the sharp edges. If you cut 
thru them they will always show lighter than the rest. 

4. Wax and polish, using prepared floor wax. This gives a 

beautiful finish. It is easily applied, and the finish 
easily renewed whenever it becomes dull or spotted. 

5. In place of the wax, white shellac, varnish, or any similar 

finish may be applied. When dry, sand with very fine 
sand paper, sanding always in the direction of the grain. 
Shellac or varnish should be applied only in a warm, 
dry room that is free from dust. Dust is especially 
bad, for every particle that settles on the work will 
show unless removed entirely with sand paper or 
pumice-stone before the next coat Is applied. 
Shellac is a solution of lac and alcohol. It therefore dries 
very quickly; hence, one must not attempt to do much "brushing 
out" with shellac. If one does, the alcohol in the brush will only 
soften up some parts more than others, thus piling up the finish 
in some places while drawing it away from others. Several thin 
coats of shellac, each carefully sanded after it is thoroly dry, will 
give the best results. 
5. Wax may now be applied or the work given as many coats 
of shellac, varnish, or other finish, as desired. 
Each coat should be given ample time to dry, and then be sanded 
before the next coat is applied. Pumice-stone and water may be 
used in place of sand paper to rub down the surfaces. Since 
varnish and shellac do not work well over oil, pumice-stone and 
oil should be used only for the final rubbing or polishmg. Several 
coats of shellnc or varnisli, pp.ch rubbed down well, will fill any 
surface, but for open grained woods like oak or chestnut the pre- 
pared rock filler is cheaper, quicker, and just as satisfactory. For 
close grained woods the shellac or varnish is to be preferred. 



62 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

Experimental Work: 

A good finish can never be given to wood unless the 
surfaces have been made true and smooth with the 
plane, the scraper, and sand paper. Scratches and torn 
places only show worse after the finish is applied. 
To convince yourself that this is true: 

1. Find a cross-grained board that tears somewhat 

under the plane. Plane, scrape, and sand a wide 
surface, an edge, and an end until they are as true 
and smooth as you can make them. Plane the 
other surfaces but do not scrape or sand out the 
torn places left by the plane. You might, how- 
ever, do a little sanding across the grain, using 
coarse sand paper, but not enough to remove the 
torn places. 

2. Stain and finish all the surfaces In the same man- 

ner, using the same materials on all and following 
the order of steps given above. The results ob- 
tained will be very convincing. 

Fuming Oak and Chestnut 

On oak and chestnut the process of fuming may be substi- 
tuted for that of staining. This process of fuming may be 
described as follows: 

1. Dissolve some tannic acid in an equal amount of water. 

Commercial tannic acid is the pulverized inner bark of the white 
oak tree. 

2. Paint the surfaces of the wood with the solution of tannic 

acid. 

Chestnut and some kinds of white oak can be fumed without 
painting the surfaces with tannic acid. The results are, however, 
seldom as satisfactory when this work is omitted. You might try 
some experiments to satisfy yourself upon this point. 



WOOD FINISHING 63 

3. Place the articles to be fumed, together with a sufficient 

amount of concentrated ammonia to saturate the air 
with the ammonia fumes, into a closed box or room. 

The ammonia should be placed in shallow dishes. Be 
careful to expose all surfaces that you wish darkened, to 
the action of the ammonia fumes. 

A large packing box may be lined with paper for this purpose, 
or the door of a closet may be fitted with weather strips. A 
glass window somewhere in the box or the door of the room will 
permit one to observe the changes as they take place. It usually 
requires from ten to twenty-four hours to darken the wood 
properly. 

4. The fuming will raise the grain of the wood. It must, 

therefore, be sanded down well before filling and finish- 
ing. 

Sometimes, when the fuming has been a little irregular, it is 
wise to even up the color with some brown stain after the fuming 
and sanding have been completed. 

5. Fill and finish as already explained. 

Oil Finishing 

Boiled linseed oil "cut" in a little turpentine makes a very 
good finish. It is especially good on close grained woods such 
as mahogany, cherry, black walnut, or yellow pine. If a nat- 
ural color is wanted it is only necessary to brush or rub the 
oil and turpentine on the surfaces. For this operation a 
rag will do quite as well as a brush. After the oil has pene- 
trated as deeply as possible, i. e., after about ten or twelve 
hours, the surfaces should be polished by rubbing. The rub- 
bing should be done lengthwise of the grain, and if the best re- 
sults are desired, repeated day after day for several days. 
This finish darkens and enriches the color of the wood some- 
what, and if it is oiled and polished occasionally it will im- 
prove with age. 



64 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

Experimental Work: 

1. Try several proportions of boiled linseed oil and 

turpentine to determine the best proportions to 
use. Try the effect of adding a little japan drier. 
Try raw linseed oil instead of the boiled. Does it 
dry as fast or faster than the boiled? 

2. Make up a set of samples, using: 

(a) Water stains; (b) spirit stains; (c) oil stains; 

(d) fumed pieces, filling and polishing the open 

grained woods, but simply polishing those with a 

close grain. 
Manufacturers of stains and polishes will gladly send you samples 
of their products and instructions for using them if you will 
write to them and state your purpose. Look for their advertise- 
ments in any trade journal, also in the manual and industrial arts 
magazines. 

3. Make up a set of samples using colors ground in oil. 

Add a little oil and thin with turpentine. 

Care of Brushes 

Varnish and filler brushes can be cleaned with turpentine, 
benzine, naphtha, or gasoline, and then the turpentine or other 
cleanser may be put into the jar of filler, so that there is no 
waste. Shellac brushes can be cleaned with alcohol, and then 
the alcohol put into the shellac. 

Water and spirit stains do not ordinarily stiffen the brushes 
so that they do not need to be cleaned after using. The 
brushes should be clearly labeled and hung up after using, and 
always used for the same purpose. 

The Stain Bench 

The drawings (Fig. 40) show a satisfactory arrangement 
of containers and covers for stains and finishes. 

The containers are granite pails about six inches in diam- 
eter and four inches high. These pails are set on blocks which 



WOOD FINISHING 



65 




CLOSED 



OP£N 



Fig. 40. 

are fastened to the bottom of the inclosing box. When not in 
use the stain in the container is protected from the air by a 
metal cover seven inches in diameter and ten inches high. 
The container, brush, cover, and block are all given the same 



66 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

number to avoid mistakes in returning things to their proper 
places. Several containers and covers are inclosed in one long 
box, the lid of which forms a shelf when open, as shown in 
the drawings (Fig. 40). The box can be locked with a pad- 
lock when not in use, thus preventing misuse of the bench 
and finishes. 

Reference Work: 

1. Find out how the following articles are made, and 

when they are used: turpentine, linseed oil 
(boiled and raw), benzine, resin, drier, japan, 
white lead, zinc oxide, putty, spirit stain, water 
stain, copal varnish, shellac varnish, rubber set 
brushes, and pumice-stone. 

2. Try to collect the raw materials and make: (1) 

linseed oil ; (2) rosin ; (3) turpentine ; (4) lamp 
black ; (5) vegetable dyes — it will be well to tone 
down your dyes with lamp black; (6) filler; (7) 
wax ; (8) brushes. Experiment with pieces of tin, 
with old dust brushes, and other inexpensive ma- 
terials. You may find that you can make brushes 
that will do very well indeed for applying stain 
and filler and so save your good brushes for 
shellac and varnish. 

3. Look up the subject of house painting. Collect 

several brands of paint, and prepare and paint 
samples. Expose some samples to the action of 
the weather. Try out various proportions of tur- 
pentine, lead, and oil ; turpentine, lead, zinc oxide 
and oil, to determine the best wearing qualities 
for out of door work. Experiment with colors. 



CHAPTER XI 

Lumbering 

One ought never to work long in any material without 
making a real study of its characteristics and its sources. 
Lumber has grain; it warps and shrinks and is subject to 
many defects. It comes in many standard sizes and shapes. 
You should start at once to observe and jot down every fact 
concerning these matters that you can discover. Here are a 
few suggestions: 

1. Go to your lumber dealer or some good carpenter and 

inquire of him what the standard defects are in lumber, 
e. g., sap wood, pitch pockets, wanes, heart shakes, cup 
shakes and wind shakes. Ask him to show you exam- 
ples of each and if possible make a collection of them 
and other defects such as: dry rot, worm holes, and 
knots. Ask him to explain what he means by "A stock" 
in yellow pine or white oak; B, C, and D stock; No. 1, 
No. 2, and No. 3 common. Ask him to show you the 
difference between plain and quarter-sawed oak. 

2. Try a few experiments. 

1. Get a few short logs 10" or 12" in diameter. 

2. Saw each log in half. 

3. Saw boards out of each log to illustrate plain and 

quarter-sawing. 

4. Keep a record to show the percentage of weight 

that is lost in the saw dust, and the amount that 
turns out to be bark or edgings rather than useful 
boards. 

5. Keep a record to show how much weight is lost in 

drying the boards. 



68 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

6. Set the boards on edge so that the air has free ac- 

cess to both sides of each piece and note (1) which 
way the boards warp ; (2) how much they shrink 
edgewise and endwise ; (3) how they check. 

7. Try to learn how lumber should be piled in or.der to 

dry thoroly and yet not warp. 

8. Try to learn what methods are used to dry lumber 

rapidly. 

*\ Try to learn what uses are being made of the saw 
dust, the edgings, bark, and other pieces that were 
once wasted at the saw mills. 

The druggist, or a book on industrial chemistry will help in this 
inquiry. Start in with a study of wood alcohol, tannic acid, and 
turpentine. 

10. Make a sketch of a tree trunk, showing: (1) the 
pith, (2) the medullary rays, (3) the annual rings, 
(4) heart wood, (5) sapwood, (6) cambium, 
(7) bast, (8) outer bark. 

You might be told just what books to read, just to what 
department of the United States Government to write for 
information, but if you were, you would be robbed of part of 
the fun of the search. Make a game of this investigation, see 
who can bring in the most specimens, pictures, and informa- 
tion. Sort out and classify your finds and finally make a case 
for them and a file for your written notes. 



CHAPTER XII 

Suggestions to Teachers 
Method: 

Our experience with boys of eleven to fourteen years 
would seem to indicate a peculiar proneness to pick out and 
learn all the accidental or relatively unimportant matter 
that can be found in a text book, while often ignoring things 
of real importance. Undoubtedly training is needed to over- 
come this habit. We have chosen, by using two sizes of 
type, to help the boy in this matter and, if possible, to 
"put things up to him" in such a way that there can be no 
dodging. 

On the other hand, if the boy will undertake the reference 
and experimental work suggested, there will be ample op- 
portunity for him to exercise his powers of discrimination 
and analysis. If the boy finds any unfamiliar words in the 
text it should be his business to look them up in the dic- 
tionary. All the crafts have a few technical words that the 
young mechanic should learn as soon as possible. A dic- 
tionary should, therefore, be part of the equipment of every 
shop. 

Reference and Experimental Work: 

Do not let the reference and experimental work trouble 
you. We have suggested much more than any one class 
should ever undertake. Do as much or as little of it as you 
find of interest and value. We have found that for many 
reasons — illness, transfers, inability, or unusual ability — 
there are always some boys that get out of step with the 
rest of the class. They need special attention. This, the 
conscientious teacher, if he is to deal justly with the faith- 

69 



70 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

ful majority, cannot always give immediately. At such 
times we have found a well selected shelf of books to be a 
wonderful help. We have assigned the topics suggested 
for reference or experimental work, and have seldom been 
disappointed in the results secured. Indeed, we believe 
that a boy's curiosity, guided somewhat by the master, will 
often discount all the master's grown-up analysis of the 
subject, all his careful grading of difficulties. For, once 
the boy has caught a glimpse of the light and is filled with 
a desire to reach it, his zeal and enthusiasm will make short 
work of many difficulties. We do not, however, discount 
the value of the master. He leads the way after all, and it is 
his counsel that helps to fix standards and ideals in the 
boy's mind. 

Shop Organization: 

The shop teacher has a great many tools and supplies to 
care for. If he attempts to attend to all these matters per- 
sonally he will find himself burdened with his duties. On 
the other hand, if he is a good organizer and manager he 
can, by calling the boys to his assistance, make this part of 
the work a real satisfaction and at the same time give to 
his boys a training in responsibility and leadership that is 
of supreme interest and importance. 

We have learned to appoint the best and most reliable 
boys as inspectors, tool experts, and shop foremen. Our 
system works out about as follows: 

1. One boy in each row is appointed an inspector. It is his 
dutj' to inspect at the beginning and at the end of each 
class period, the condition of each bench in his row. If 
he finds any tool missing he reports the same to the 
shop foreman; otherwise he reports everything O. K. 
The shop foreman records this report in his book. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 71 

2. An inspector is appointed: 

1. For the general tool case. 

2. For the stain table. 

3. For the drawing boards. 

4. For the clamp table. 

5. For the lumber rack. 

Each of these inspectors report to the shop foreman and 
the shop foreman records their reports in his book. 

3. A tool expert is appointed to help others grind their plane 

irons and chisels. He is selected because he is the best 

mechanic in the class. He is only asked to serve when 

the teacher finds it impossible to attend to the grinding 

personally. 

Some may think this a rather complicated organization to 

maintain. We do not find it so. Indeed, it saves us a great 

deal of time. The boys are able to perform their duties in 

about three minutes daily, and if the teacher is systematic 

himself in checking up the inspectors and the records of his 

shop foreman, he will find that the boys have kept house for 

him in splendid fashion. 

A few inquiries into the organization of the best industrial 
shops, made at the time the inspectors, tool expert, and shop 
foreman are appointed, and a little study of the evolution of 
foremen and superintendents will convince the boys that it is 
an honor to be asked to serve in this capacity, and that the 
training involved is of great value. The idea can be pressed 
still further. One or more shop draftsmen may be selected to 
put drawings or written work on the board; one or more "jig" 
experts appointed to construct jigs so that certain jobs can 
be worked out rapidly. In this way every ambitious boy can 
be given an opportunity that means training for leadership 
and responsibility. 
How to Keep up Interest in Drill Work: 

Skill in using the various tools is essential if satisfactory 



72 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

results are to be secured. We have learned to make a game 
of this part of our work. We can hardly go into the details 
of our methods, our score cards, and our inter-class con- 
tests. The ingenious teacher with the help of his boys 
should be able to solve the problem. We learned the trick 
from the elementary grade teachers of our acquaintance. 

Manual Training Equipment: 

As a matter of suggestion we are giving a list of tools for a 

manual training equipment. 
For 96 students in four sections of 24 each. 
24 10 pt. 22" Crosscut Saws (Disston's No. 8; Atkins' No. 

153; or Bishop's). 
24 No. 3 Smooth Planes (Bailey). 
24 No. 65 Stanley Marking Gages . 
24 No. 20 Stanley 9" Try-squares. 
24 No. 60 Steel Rules 12", Lufkin's Etched. 
24 Oilstones — Indian Medium, Iron Box. 
12 Copperized Steel Oilers, 2yi" Nozzle, ^ Pint. 
24 Bench Brushes, Solid Back. 
24 Hickory Mallets, Round Head (3"x5"). 
24 Drawing Boards — Springfield Inds. No. 2 Drawing Kits 

Milton Bradley Co. 
24 No. 576 Eagle Compasses, 

72 Double Irons to fit No. 3 Smooth Planes, 154" Cutter. 
96 No. 1 Sloyd Knives, 2^" Blade. 
24 S. F. Chisels, %", Buck Bros. No. 35. 
24 S. F. Chisels, ^,". 
12 Rip Saws, 8 Pt. 22", Atkins' No. 53. 
12 Hammers, 7 oz. Ball Face Claw — Maydoles. 
9 Bit Braces, No. 14-6", Plain Barber. 
9 Framing Squares, 2 ft. — Nichols. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 73 

9 Gimlet Bits, 3-32^ 

9 Gimlet Bits, 4-32". 

9 Gimlet Bits, 5-32". 

9 Gimlet Bits, 6-32". 

9 Gimlet Bits, 7-32", 

9 Countersinks No. 4 — Rose. 

6 Dowel Bits, ^4" — Russel Jennings Augers 102. 

6 Dowel Bits, ^" ("Mephisto")— W. A. Ives Co., Walling- 
ford. Conn. 

1 Set Auger Bits, ^" to 1" by i^^ths ("Mephisto")— W. A. 

Ives Co., Wallingford, Conn. 

12 Cabinet Maker's Clamps, 4 Ft. — Sheldon's. 

4 Screw Drivers, 3" — Champion. 

4 Screw Drivers, 5" — Champion. 

4 Screw Drivers, 7" — Champion. 

24 Cabinet Scrapers, 2^"x6"— Atkins' 2. 

12 Nail Sets — Syracuse. 

3 Wing Dividers, 8"— (PSW.) 

2 Dowel Plates — Wm. Johnson 78. 

1 Knife Handle Monkey Wrench, 12" — Coes. 
12 Saw Files (5" Slim Taper) — American. 

2 Turning Saw Frames with rod, 14". 

1 Flat Lip Side Cutting Pliers No. 50, 8". 

12 Saws for 14" Disston Frame. 

3 Sliding T-Bevel, 25-12". 

24 American Mill Bastard Files, 10". 

24 American Mill Bastard Files, 12-^^ Rd. 

6 Burnishers, Rd. or Oval, Disston. 

1 Miter Box, Perfection. 

1 Nest of Keyhole, Compass and Pruning Saws, Disston's. 

2 Garbage Cans, No. 75 W. C. Co. 
24 Tin Cups, 1 Qt. 

6 Galv. Stain Covers with open end, Diam. 7", Ht. 10". 



74 TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 

1 Lmp. Adj. Exp. Bit — C. E. Jennings. 
6 Granite Pails, No. 22-R, 6" Diam. 

12 Peerless Jorgensen Clamps, 8". 

12 Peerless Jorgensen Clamps, 10". 

12 Hand Scrapers, No. 81 — Stanley. 

4 No. 7 Bailey Planes 22" long by 2%" Cutter. 

4 No. 5 Bailey Planes 14" long by 2" Cutter. 

24 Chisels, ^"— Buck Bros. No. 35. 

2 Pike Peerless Senior Corundum Tool Grinders. 
1 Gal. Machine Oil (Polarine in container). 

12 Box letter files. 
2000 Thumb Tacks. 

I Bale (100 lbs.) washed sanitary rags. 
24 "End-gate" nuts, 5-16". For tool racks. 
24 Bolts to fit end-gate nuts, 5-16"x8". For tool racks. 
1 Gross No. 110 Bright wire screw eyes. " " " 
1 Gross No. 109 Bright wire screw eyes. " " " 
1 Gross No. 910 Bright wire screw eyes. " " " 
1 No. 4272 Popular 15" Blade Cardboard Cutter— Milton 
Bradley Co. 
24 Burlington Model Benches, top 22"x52", fitted with No. 
10 vise, or equal, E. H. Sheldon & Co., Muskegon, 
Mich. 
1 Double Section Wall Case (6 ft. long by 6^ ft. high) ; 
upper section to have %" back, but no shelves ; or 
equal, E. H. Sheldon & Co., Muskegon, Mich. 



INDEX 

(numbers refer to pages) 



A 

Angle of Chisel 34,35 

Angle of Plane Iron 34, 35 

Assembly Drawing 9 

B 

Bill of Materials 11 

Block Plane 32,33 

Boring for Screws 46 

Boring Tools 50 

Brushes 64 

Burnisher 42 

C 

Cap Iron 28,29 

Chisel 40,41 

Chisel, Angle of Bevel 34, 35 

Compasses 24 

Containers for Stain 64 

Conventions, Dimensioning 15 

Crosscut Saw 25, 26 

Cutting Curved Outlines 41 

Cutting Edges of Plane Irons.. 29 

D 

Dado Joint 52,53 

Dividers 24 

Drawing 9 

Drawing, Assembly 9 

Drawing, Detail 10 

Drawing, Scale 16 

Duplicate Parts 39 



E 

Edge Planing 31 

End Planing 32 

Equipment 72 

F 

Files 42 

Filler 60 

Finishing, Wood 60 

Form Work 40 

Frog of Plane 28 

Fuming Wood 62 

G 

Gage 22, 23 

Glue 48 

Glue Joint 54 

Grinding Tools 34 

Grindstone 34, 35 

H 

Hand Screws 46, 47 

Hexagon, Construction of 18 

J 

Jack Plane 30 

Joint 52,53,54,55 

Joint, Cutting 53 

Joint, Dado 52, 53 

Joint Edge 37 

Joint, Glue 54 

Joint, Mortise-and-Tenon 55 

Jointer Plane 31 



75 



76 



TOOL PROCESSES IN WOODWORKING 



L 

Lag Screws 46 

Laying-out Tools 20 

Lettering 16 

Lines, Conventional 17 

Lines, Indefinite Length 13 

Lumbering 67 

M 

Measuring Tools 20 

Method of Procedure 7 

Mortise 56 

Mortise-and-Tenon Joint 

55, 56, 57, 58 

N 
Nailing 43 

O 

Octagon, Construction of 19 

Oil Finish 63 

Oilstone 34 

P 

Perspective View 15 

Plane 28,29,30 

Plane Adjustments 28 

Plane, Angle of Bevel 34,35 

Plane, Block 32,33 

Plane Cap Iron 28,29 

Plane, Jack .30 

Plane, Jointer 31 

Plane, Smooth 30 

Planing, Edge 31 

Planing, End 32 

Polishing Wood 60 

R 

Rip Saw 26 

Rule 20 



S 

Sand Paper 43 

Saw 25,26 

Saw, Crosscut 25, 26 

Saw Kerf 25 

Saw, Rip 26 

Scale Drawing 16 

Scraper 42 

Screws 45 

Screws, Boring for 46 

Shellac 61 

Smooth Plane 30 

Squaring Stock to Dimensions. 37 

Stain 60 

Stain Bench 64 

Stain Containers 64, 65 

Steel Square 24 

T 

T-bevel 23 

Teeth of Saws 25, 26 

Tenon 58 

Title of Drawing 17 

Tools Needed in Manual Train- 
ing Shop 72 

Triangles 13 

Try-square 20 

T-square 12 

V 
Varnish 61 

W 

Wax 61 

Whetting 34 

Winding Sticks 30,31 

Witness Marks 37 

Wood Finishing 60 

Working Face 37 



